Non-State Actors in Malaysia’s Migration Management: Privatisation and the Rise of Immigration Contractors
Abstract
The emergence and relevance of immigration contractors in Malaysia’s migration management challenge the role of intermediaries and agents. The engagement of immigration services marked a substantial transformation in the state’s migration management by eliminating independent agents, whom the state could not effectively supervise, and substituting them with a few immigration contractors. In 2015, the state outsourced digital visa management to an information technology developer and in 2016, the state appointed private immigration contractors to manage the state’s regularisation activities. The emergence of state contractors raised a few questions: What factors explain the rise of immigration contractors? What are the implications of this rise for Malaysia’s migration governance? The analysis draws from official documents, company media statements, civil society press releases, news media, and secondary literature. There are two research findings. First, the emergence of immigration contractors can be seen as centralising immigration functions and addressing the mismanagement of individual agents, discouraging profiteering, eliminating fake agents, and protecting migrant rights. Second, instead of playing the active role of gatekeepers, private immigration contractors in the Malaysian context engage in a passive administrative role as they carry out the government’s directives and do not exercise autonomy in their decision-making. This differs from the literature on outsourcing and privatisation, which demonstrated how the involvement of private actors in migration alters the processes by extending and changing the character of state power.
Keywords: Immigration contractor; migration management; non-state actor; privatisation; regularisation; visa management
References
Ajis, M. N. E., Keling, M. F., Zakuan, U. A. A., & Zain, Z. M. (2018). Kajian terhadap proses dan pendekatan dalam pembentukan dasar pekerja asing di Malaysia (Study on the process and approach of the formation of foreign workers policy in Malaysia). e-BANGI: Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities,13(5), 48-65. https://journalarticle.ukm.my/20831/1/29281-89850-1-SM.pdf
Aziz, A. N. A., & Saad, S. (2022). Faktor kebergantungan industri terhadap pekerja asing di Malaysia (Factors of industrial dependency on foreign workers in Malaysia) e-BANGI: Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 19(7), 263-276. https://doi.org/10.17576/ebangi.2022.1907.20
Bestinet’s explanation on visa services raises more questions, says PKR. (2015, February 6). The Edge Malaysia. https://theedgemalaysia.com/article/bestinet%E2%80%99s-explanation-visa-services-raises-more-questions-says-pkr
Bestinet: We stop human trafficking. (2018, June 25). Star Online. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/06/25/bestinet-we-stop-human-trafficking-our-system-is-specifically-designed-for-the-purpose-and-it-is-eff/#xs6L6ka2CRqQZe4u.99
Bloom, T. (2015a). The business of noncitizenship. Citizenship Studies, 19(8), 892-906. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621025.2015.1110283
Bloom, T. (2015b). The business of migration control: Delegating migration control functions to private actors. Global Policy, 6(2), 151-157. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12188
Chin, C.B. (2008) Diversification’and ‘privatisation’: Securing insecurities in the receiving country of Malaysia. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 9(4), 285-303. https://doi.org/10.1080/14442210802485070
Chen, S.F (2015a, January 29). Don’t make MyEG services mandatory, says private sector. The Edge Financial Daily. https://theedgemalaysia.com/article/don%E2%80%99t-make-myeg-services-mandatory-says-private-sector
Chen, S.F. (2015b, February 5). Bestinet: No government contract yet for FWCMS implementation. The Edge Financial Daily. https://theedgemalaysia.com/article/bestinet-no-government-contract-yet-fwcms-implementation-0
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage.
Fernandez, I. (2014). In Malaysia, the scandal of outsourcing companies is at the heart of forced labour. Human Resources Without Borders. http://www.rhsansfrontieres.org/en/press/our-press-opinion/329-article-malaysia-forced-labour
Flynn, M., & Cannon, C. J. (2009). The privatization of immigration detention: Towards a global view. A Global Detention Project Working Paper.
Franck, A. K., Arellano, E. B., & Anderson, J. T. (2018). Navigating Migrant Trajectories Through Private Actors: Burmese Labour Migration to Malaysia. European Journal of East Asian Studies, 17(1), 55-82. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700615-01701003
FWCMS. (2019). Foreign Workers Centralized Management System (FWCMS) aims for global expansion. https://fwcms.com.my/2019/07/09/foreign-workers-centralized-management-system-fwcms-aims-for-global-expansion/
FWCMS. (2023). About FWCMS. https://fwcms.com.my/
Garcés-Mascareñas, B. (2012). Labour Migration in Malaysia and Spain: Markets, Citizenship and Rights. Amsterdam University Press.
Gelb, S. & Krishnan, A. (2018). Technology, Migration and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
London: Overseas Development Institute.
Guiraudon, V., & Lahav, G. (2000). A reappraisal of the state sovereignty debate: The case of migration control. Comparative Political Studies, 33(2), 163–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414000033002001
Hedman, E. L. E. (2008). Refuge, Governmentality and Citizenship: Capturing ‘Illegal Migrants’ in Malaysia and Thailand. Government and Opposition, 43(2), 358-383. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2008.00258.x
Ho, K.Y. (2019, January 24). Don’t privatise online system for foreign workers, says NGO. Free Malaysia Today. https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2019/01/24/dont-privatise-online-system-for-foreign-workers-says-ngo/
Idris, Ahmad Naqib. (2015a, September 14). MyEG: Claims of commencement of illegal foreign workers registration untrue. The Edge Markets. https://theedgemalaysia.com/article/myeg-claims-commencement-illegal-foreign-workers-registration-untrue
Idris, Azim. (2015b, June 9). No more manual Visa application for foreign workers starting from July 1. New Straits Times. https://www.nst.com.my/amp/news/2015/09/no-more-manual-visa-application-foreign-workers-starting-july-1
Immigration Dept Nab Bangladeshi for Operating Re-hiring Programme Illegally. (2018, July 6). Sun Daily. http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2018/07/06/immigration-dept-nab-bangladeshi-operating-re-hiringprogramme-illegally
Immigration department appoints three companies to assist in rehiring programme - D-G. (2018, February 15). New Straits Times. https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/02/335942/immigration-department-appoints-three-companies-assist-rehiring-programme
Indonesia and Nepal threaten to stop sending workers. (2015, January 29). Star Online. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2015/01/29/indonesia-and-nepal-threaten-to-stop-sending-workers/#tkMRWZwhGXtx3YWf.99
Institute of Labour Market Information and Analysis (ILMIA), Ministry of Human Resources (2023). Report of the Independent Committee on the Management of Foreign Workers. https://www.moha.gov.my/images/maklumat_bahagian/IM/BPAReport_LATEST_compressed-compressed-compressed.pdf
Izma, Nazatul (2023, October 11). Utilising technology to address foreign workers’ issues. Free Malaysia Today. https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2023/10/11/utilising-technology-to-address-foreign-workers-issues/
Jones, S. (2000). Making Money off Migrants: The Indonesian Exodus to Malaysia. Asia 2000 Ltd.
Kaur, A. (2012). Labour brokers in migration: Understanding historical and contemporary transnational migration regimes in Malaya/Malaysia. International Review of Social History, 57(S20), 225-252. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020859012000478
Kaur, A. (2014). Managing labour migration in Malaysia: Guest worker programs and the regularisation of irregular labour migrants as a policy instrument. Asian Studies Review, 38(3), 345-366. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020859012000478
Kaur, Minderjeet. (2019, December 17). Tenaganita says 500,000 migrant workers cheated in “govt-sponsored scam”, Free Malaysia Today. https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/nation/2019/12/17/tenaganita-says-500000-migrant-workers-cheated-in-govt-sponsored-scam/
Kassim, A & Mat Zin, R. (2011). Policy on irregular migrants in Malaysia: an analysis of its implementation and effectiveness. PIDS Discussion Paper Series. (No. 2011-34). https://hdl.handle.net/10419/126870
Krippendorff, K (2004). Content Analysis. An Introduction to its Methodology. Sage.
Laube, L., & Müller, A. (2016). Extra-territorial Migration Control from a Principal–Agent Perspective: Actors, Mechanisms and Delegation Costs. In S. Poli (Ed.) European Neighbourhood Policy: Values and Principles (pp. 47-69). Palgrave Macmillan.
Lahav, G. (1998). Immigration and the state: The devolution and privatisation of immigration control in the EU. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 24 (4), 675-694. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.1998.9976660
Lea, J. (2016). War, criminal justice and the rebirth of privatisation. In R McGarry and S. Walklate (Eds). The Palgrave Handbook of Criminology and War (pp. 25-44). Palgrave Macmillan.
Lethbridge, J. (2017). Privatisation of Migration and Refugee Services and Other Forms of State Disengagement. Report commissioned by Public Services International (PSI) and the European Federation of Public Service Unions (EPSU).
López-Sala, A., & Godenau, D. (2022). In private hands? the markets of migration control and the politics of outsourcing. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 48(7), 1610-1628. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2020.1857229
Low, C. C. (2020). De-commercialization of the Labor Migration Industry in Malaysia. Southeast Asian Studies, 9 (1), 27-65. https://doi.org/10.20495/seas.9.1_27
Low, C. C. (2021). Digitalization of Migration Management in Malaysia: Privatization and the Role of Immigration Service Providers. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 22(4), 1599-1627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-021-00809-1
Low, C. C. (2023). Migtech, fintech and fair migration in Malaysia: addressing the protection gap between migrant rights and labour policies. Third World Quarterly, 44(5), 872-891. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2022.2162380
Malayan Chinese Association. (2015, January 29). Business groups voice displeasure over new systems and fee hikes. http://www.mca.org.my/2/Content/SinglePage?_param1=13-122018-57973-12-201813&_param2=TS
Malaysia. (2014). Hansard, House of Representatives, April 7. https://www.parlimen.gov.my/files/hindex/pdf/DR-07042014.pdf
Malaysia. (2018). Hansard, House of Representatives, Oct 30. https://www.parlimen.gov.my/files/hindex/pdf/DR-30102018.pdf
Malaysian Chinese Association (2015, January 29) Business groups voice displeasure over new systems and fee hikes. http://www.mca.org.my/2/Content/SinglePage?_param1=13-122018-57973-12-201813&_param2=TS
Martin, L. (2017). Discretion, contracting, and commodication: privatisation of US immigration detention as a technology of government. In D. Conlon & N. Hiemstra (Eds.). Intimate economies of immigration detention: Critical perspectives (pp. 32–50). Routledge.
Menz, G. (2011). Neo-liberalism, privatization and the outsourcing of migration management: a five-country comparison. Competition & Change, 15(2), 116–135. https://doi.org/10.1179/102452911x13025292603633
Migrant Worker’s Right to Redress Coalition. (2019a, August 7). Flawed set-up for workers. Star Online. https://www.thestar.com.my/opinion/letters/2019/08/07/flawed-set-up-for-workers
Migrant Workers Right to Redress Coalition. (2019b). Towards A Comprehensive National Policy On Labour Migration for Malaysia. https://nsinitiative.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Comprehensive-National-Policy-on-Labour-Migration-v032019.pdf
Mitsilegas, V. (2012). Immigration Control in an Era of Globalization: Deflecting Foreigners, Weakening Citizens, and Strengthening the State. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 19(1), 3–60. https://doi.org/10.2979/indjglolegstu.19.1.3
Mixed reactions over new foreign workers system. (2015, June 12). Star Online. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2015/06/12/mixed-reactions-over-new-foreign-workers-system/#mwKkXD4AWu5KScqv.99
Palansamy, Yiswaree. (2019, December 17). Return RM2.5b due to migrant workers from rehiring programme, Tenaganita tells govt. Malay Mail. https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/12/17/pay-cheated-migrant-workers-their-rm2.5b-due-from-rehiring-programme-tenaga/1820078
Rahimah Abdullah. (2016, February 5). Online Rehiring programme for illegal foreign workers begins Feb 15. Astro Awani. https://www.astroawani.com/berita-malaysia/online-rehiring-programme-illegal-foreign-workers-begins-feb-15-93008
Rahim, Rahimy. (2017, January 1). Chance to legalise illegal workers. Star Online. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2017/01/25/chance-to-legalise-illegal-workers-employers-can-apply-for-immigration-departments-ekad-starting-feb#LF2qtB3ouTMrSM7M.99
Sánchez-Barrueco, M. L. (2018). Business as usual? Mapping outsourcing practices in Schengen visa processing. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(3), 382-400. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2017.1301814
Schreier, M. (2012). Qualitative Content Analysis in Practice. Sage.
Sim, Steven (2016, 19 July). After immigration sabotage exposé, now gov’t wants to spend more money. Malaysia Kini. https://www.malaysiakini.com/news/349032
Sim, Steven (2017, 2 January). Bestinet, once suspended, now immigration contractor. Free Malaysia Today. https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/opinion/2017/01/02/bestinet-once-suspended-now-immigration-contractor/
Shuaib, Iwan. (2016, December 15). Rehiring costs RM1,200. Star Online. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2016/02/15/rehiring-costs-rm1200/
Spaan, E., & van Naerssen, T. (2017). Migration decision-making and migration industry in the Indonesia–Malaysia corridor. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(4), 680–695. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2017.1315523
Sørensen, N. N. & Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. (2013). Introduction. In T Gammeltoft-Hansen and N. N. Sorensen (Eds.). The migration industry and the commercialization of international migration (pp.1-23). Routledge.
Taylor-Nicholson, E., Balasubramaniam R. and Mahendran, N. (2019). Migrant Workers’ Access to Justice: Malaysia. Bar Council. https://www.malaysianbar.org.my/cms/upload_files/document/Migrant%20Workers%20Access%20to%20Justice%20Report%20(28Nov2019).pdf
Tee, Kenneth. (2018, June 1). Putrajaya to terminate re-hiring services of MyEG, two other Immigration Department vendors. Malay Mail. https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2018/06/01/putrajaya-to-terminate-services-of-myeg-two-other-immigration-department-ve/1637503
Teoh Pei Ying. (2018, July 11). Immigration Dept Busts Rehiring Programme Syndicate. New Straits Times. https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2018/07/389774/immigration-dept-busts-rehiringprogramme-syndicate#cxrecs
Vasanthakumar, A. (2018). Privatising border control. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 38(3), 411-429. https://doi.org/10.1093/ojls/gqy015
Wickramasekara, P. (2015). Review of the Government-to-Government (G-to-G) Mechanism for the Employment of Bangladeshi Workers in the Malaysian Plantation Sector. International Labour Organization.
World Bank. (2013). Immigration in Malaysia: Assessment of its Economic Effects and a Review of the Policy and System. http://psu.um.edu.my/images/psu/doc/Recommended%20Reading/Immigration%20in%20Malaysia.pdf
World Bank. (2015). Malaysia Economic Monitor: Immigrant Labour. Washington, D.C. : World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/753511468197095162/Malaysia-Economic-monitor-immigrant-labor
Zachariah, E. (2015, January 30). Malaysian immigration suspends Bestinet’s biometric health checks and visa services. Malaysian Insider. https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/malaysian-immigration-suspends-bestinet%E2%80%99s-biometric-health-checks-and-visa-services
Zolkepli, Farik. (2015, February 8). Bestinet willing to aid in FWCMS issues. Star Online. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2015/02/08/bestinet-willing-to-aid-in-fwcms-issues-firm-ready-to-work-with-govt-in-addressing-concerns-over-sys/#KBtySK7p0kqwD7JQ.99
Zolkepli, Farik. (2018, August 12). Rehiring Agent Conned Us of RM1.8 Million, Claim Bangladeshi Workers. Star Online. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2018/08/12/rehiring-agent-connedus-of-rm1_8mil-claim-bangladeshi-workers/#LRrxJcOgMJusx8tF.99
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFDOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/ebangi.2025.2202.05
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
-
_________________________________________________
eISSN 1823-884x
Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan
MALAYSIA
© Copyright UKM Press, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia