Konfrontasi and Regional Stability in Southeast Asia (1963–1966): A Systematic Review of Political, Military, and Diplomatic Dimensions

Abstract

The Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, which occurred from 1963 to 1966 and is also known as Konfrontasi, marked a pivotal moment in Southeast Asia’s postcolonial development, shaped by ideological rivalry, regional insecurity, and Cold War geopolitics. Initiated by Indonesia’s opposition to Malaysia's formation, the conflict unfolded through nationalist propaganda, cross-border military operations in Borneo, and strategic diplomatic maneuvering by both regional and international actors. While existing scholarship has examined Konfrontasi through various disciplinary lenses, comprehensive synthesis remains limited. This study undertakes a systematic literature review to integrate key academic perspectives on the political, military, and diplomatic dimensions of Konfrontasi, with particular emphasis on its impact on regional stability and state formation. We sourced relevant literature from 1960 to 2025 from JSTOR, SAGE Journals, Taylor and Francis, and Google Scholar, utilising the PRISMA methodology. Six methodologically robust studies were identified and appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). These works address interlinked themes including British counterinsurgency doctrine, Cold War alignments, Indonesian nationalist rhetoric, Australian military engagement via the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement (AMDA), civilian-led resistance in the Sarawak and Sabah borderlands, and elite diplomacy culminating in the 1966 Bangkok Accord. The findings demonstrate that while Konfrontasi strained bilateral relations and destabilised the region, it paradoxically contributed to the emergence of institutional regionalism, most notably through the founding of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. The conflict’s legacy endures in the diplomatic architecture of Southeast Asia, reinforcing principles of noninterference, regional consensus, and multilateral security cooperation.

References

Abdul Halim, N. H., & Mohd Nor, N. A. (2020). Cold War Politics and the Establishment of ASEAN: A Historical Analysis. e-Bangi: Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 17(5), https://doi.org/10.17576/ebangi.2020.1705.

Acharya, A. (2009). Constructing a security community in Southeast Asia: ASEAN and the problem of regional order. Routledge.

Ali, A. R. M. (2024). Konfrontasi Indonesia–Malaysia (1963-1966) Persengketaan Dua Negara Serumpun [Confrontation Between Malaysia and Indonesia (1963-1966) The Feud of Two Allied Countries]. BITARA International Journal of Civilizational Studies and Human Sciences(1), 92-103. https://bitarajournal.com/index.php/bitarajournal/article/view/462/418

Mad Ali, M., & Abang, A. R. (2023). Bantuan Australia Terhadap Malaysia Semasa Konfrontasi Indonesia, 1963-1966. e-Bangi: Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 20(3), 334-342. http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/ebangi.2023.2003.29

Budiawan, B. (2012). Sibling tension and negotiation; Malay (sian) writer-political activists’ links and orientation to Indonesia. In Heirs to world culture; Being Indonesian 1950-1965 (pp. 143-162). KITLV Press.

Clutterbuck, R. (2019). Conflict and violence in Singapore and Malaysia, 1945-1983. Routledge.

D'Souza, R. (2010). Introduction to the special issue: Postcolonialism, realism, and critical realism. Journal of Critical Realism, 9(3), 263-275. https://doi.org/10.1558/jcr.v9i3.263

De Viana, A. V. (2017). The dream of Malayan unity: President Macapagal and the Maphilind. 24(1). Sejarah. https://doi.org/10.22452/sejarah.vol24no1.4

Fortuna, A. D. (1994). Indonesia in ASEAN: Foreign policy and regionalism. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

Mackie, J. A. C. (1974). Konfrontasi: The Indonesia–Malaysia dispute, 1963–1966. Oxford University Press for the Australian Institute of International Affairs.

Ministry of Internal Security Malaysia. (1964). Indonesian intentions towards Malaysia. Government Printing Office.

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., ... & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71.

Paul, J., & Barari, M. (2022). Meta‐analysis and traditional systematic literature reviews—what, why, when, where, and how? Psychology & Marketing, 39(6), 1099–1115. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar. 21657

Poulgrain, G. J. (2014). The genesis of konfrontasi: Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia, 1945-1965. Strategic Information and Research Development Centre.

Purnomo, A., & Kurniawan, G. F. (2025). Rereading the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, 1962–1966: Pros and cons of students in Indonesia’s history learning. Qualitative Research in Education, 14(1), 20–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.17583/qre.15555

Ricklefs, M. C. (2008). A history of modern Indonesia since c.1200 (4th ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.

Sodhy, P. (1988). Malaysian–American Relations during Indonesia's Confrontation against Malaysia, 1963–66. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 19(1), 111-136. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022463400000369

Subritzky, J. (2000). Confronting Sukarno: British, American, Australian and New Zealand diplomacy in the Malaysian-Indonesian confrontation, 1961–5. Macmillan Press.

Hong, Q. N., Fàbregues, S., Bartlett, G., et al. (2018). Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) Version 2018 – User guide. McGill University.

Thomas, J., & Harden, A. (2008). Methods for the thematic synthesis of qualitative research. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 8, 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-8-45

The Straits Times. (1961, May 29). Mighty ‘Malaysia’. NewspaperSG. A1, A4.

The Straits Times. (1963, January 22). Subandrio’s speech direct attack: Tengku. NewspaperSG. A1, A4.

The Straits Times. (1966, August 18). Odd echo. NewspaperSG. A1, A4.

Tranfield, D., Denyer, D., & Smart, P. (2003). Towards a methodology for developing evidence-informed management knowledge by means of systematic review. British Journal of Management, 14(3), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.00375

Tuck, C. (2004). Borneo 1963-66: Counter-insurgency operations and war termination. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 15(3), 89-111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0968344515599556

Tuck, C. (2016). Confrontation, strategy and war termination: Britain's conflict with Indonesia. Routledge.

Tuck, C. (2017). ‘Winning While Losing’: Borneo Headquarters and the End of Confrontation, June–November 1966. War in History, 24(1), 87-109. https://doi.org/10.1177/09683445155995

Tuck, C. (2021). Managing Military Withdrawal: The British Departure from East Malaysia, 1966–1967. The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 49(2), 312-338.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03086534.2020.1848033

Yaakop, M. R. (2010). The Indonesian Confrontation: Political and Military Magnitudes. Available at SSRN 1690607 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1690607