Beberapa Pendekatan dan Tema dalam Kajian Usahawan dan Keusahawanan Cina
Abstract
This article gives a critical review of the literature on Chinese entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship. The discussion is divided into three parts. Part one gives a debate over two different schools of thoughts on the development of Chinese capitalism. The first group of scholar form and belong to the Confu- cian hypothesis and strongly believed that this cultural factor causes the rise of Chinese capitalism. The second group of scholar argued that Chinese capi- talism is network capitalism. Part two gives a review focused on Chinese entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship in Malaysia. Major themesfound were on ethnicity, and how government policies and market power transform the Chinese corporate culture in Malaysia. Part three debates on the weaknesses of approaches used in the previous researches. The article ended with a suggestion of a more balanced approach to investigate how Chinese entrepreneurs as actors react according to their rationality to fully utilize the available resources, and integrate them with their cultural values and the changing structure (Malaysian government policies and society) and develop a new and dynamic market culture.
Key words: entrepreneurs, Chinese entrepreneurship, Chinese capitalism, ethnicity
ABSTRAK
Makalah ini bertujuan memberi ulasan kritis ke atas kajian usahawan dan keusahawanan Cina. Perbincangan dibahagikan kepada tiga bahagian. Bahagian I memberi ulasan ke atas dua aliran pemikiran yang berbeza tentang pembangunan kapitalisme etnik Cina. Aliran pertama terdiri daripada sarjana yang mendokong hipotesis Konfusianisme sebagai pendorong pembangunan ekonomi etnik Cina. Aliran kedua terdiri daripada sarjana yang mempercayai bahawa kapitalisme etnik Cina adalah satu kapitalisme rangkaian. Bahagian II menumpu secara khusus kepada kajian berkenaan usahawan dan keusahawanan Cina di Malaysia. Tema utama tertumpu kepada hubungan etnisiti, dan bagaimana dasar kerajaan serta kuasa pasaran membawa transformasi dalam budaya korporat Cina di Malaysia. Bahagian III membahaskan kelemahan pendekatan yang digunakan dalam kajian-kajian lepas. Makalah ini berakhir dengan mencadangkan satu pendekatan yang lebih seimbang melihat bagaimana aktor (usahawan Cina) bertindak secara rasional menggunakan sumber yang sedia ada dan mengintegrasikan nilai budaya mereka dengan struktur (dasar kerajaan dan masyarakat Malaysia) yang sentiasa berubah menghasilkan satu budaya pasaran baru dan dinamik.
Kata kunci: usahawan, keusahawanan Cina, kapitalisme Cina, etnik etnisiti
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Berger, P. L. 1988. An East Asian development model? Dlm. Berger, P.L. (pnyt.). In Search of an East Asian Development Model, hlm. 3-11. New Brunswick: Transaction Publisher.
BT Online, 17 Julai 1997. Dlm. http://www.bt.online.
Chan, Kwok Bun & Claire Chiang See Ngoh. 1994. Stepping Out: The Making of Chinese Entrepreneurs. Singapore: Printice Hall.
Chan, Kwok Bun & Ng, Boey Kui. 2000. Myths and misperseptions of ethnic Chinese capitalism. Dlm. Chan, Kwok Bun (pnyt.), Chinese Business Network: State, Economy and Culture, hlm. 285-302. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Chan, KwokBun. 2000. State, economy and culture: Reflections on the Chinese business networks. Dlm. Chan, Kwok Bun (pnyt.), Chinese Business Networks: State, Economy and Culture, hlm. 1-13. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Chan, Wing-Tsit. 1973. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chia, Oai Peng. 1987. Trust and credit among Chinese businessmen in Kelantan. Southeast Asia Business 12 (summer): 28-31.
Chia, Oai Peng. 1990. The Chinese in Kuala Krai: A study of commerce and social life in a Malaysian town. Ph.D thesis. Kuala Lumpur: University Malaya.
D’Souza. 1996. Confucius meets Max Weber. Forbes, November 4.
Fukuyama, Francis. 1995. Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity. London: Hamish Hamilton.
Goh, Joon Hai. 1962. Some aspects of the Chinese business world in Malaya. Ekonomi 3: 84-95.
Gomez, E. T. 1994. Political Business: Corporat Involvement of Malaysian Political Parties. Townsvilles: James Cook University of North Queensland.
Gomez, E. T. 1999. Chinese Business in Malaysia: Accumulation, Accommodation and Ascendence. Surrey: Curzon Press.
Gomez, E. T. & K. S. Jomo. 1999. Malaysia’s Political Economy: Politics, Patronage and Profits (updated edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gomez, E. T. 2000. In search of patrons: Chinese business networking and Malay political patronage in Malaysia. Dlm. Chan, Kwok Bun (pnyt.), Chinese Business Networks: State, Economy and Culture, hlm. 207-223. Singapore: Prentice Hall.
Gosling, L. A. P. 1983. Chinese Crop Dealers in Malaysia and Thailand: The Myth of the Merciless Monopsonistic Middleman. Dlm. Lim, Linda Y. C. & Gosling, L. A. P. (pnyt.), The Chinese in Southeast Asia: Ethnicity and Economic Activity Volume 1: 131-170. Singapore: Maruzen Asia.
Granovatter, M. 1985. Economic action and social structure: The problem of embeddedness. American Journal of Sociology 91(3): 481-510.
Hamilton, G. 1991. The organizational foundations of Western and Chinese commerce: a historical and comparative analysis. Dlm. Hamilton, G. (pnyt.), Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, hlm. 48-65. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.
Hamilton, G. G. 1996. Overseas Chinese capitalism. Dlm. Tu, We-ming (pnyt.), Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity: Moral Education and Economic Culture in Japan and the Four Mini Dragons, hlm. 328-349. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Hamilton, G. G. 1998. Culture and organization in Taiwan’s market economy. Dlm. Hefner, R. W. (pnyt.), Market Cultures: Society and Morality in the New Asian Capitalism, hlm. 41-77. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Hamilton, G. G. & N. W. Biggart. 1988. Market, culture, and authority: A comparative analysis of management and organization in the Far East. American Journal of Sociology 94: S52-S94.
Hamilton, G. G. & C. S. Kao. 1990. The institutional foundations of Chinese business: the family firm in Taiwan. Comparative Social Research 12: 135-151.
Hara, Fujio. 1991. Malaysia’s New Economic Policy and the Chinese business community. The Developing Economies 29(4) December: 350-70.
Hefner, R. W. 1998. Market Culture: Society and Morality in the New Asian Capitalisms. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
Heng, Pek Khoon. 1992. The Chinese Business Elite of Malaysia. Dlm. McVey, R. (pnyt.), Southeast Asian Capitalists. New York: Southeast Asia Program.
Heng, Pek Khoon. 1997a. Robert Kouk and the Chinese Business Network in Eastern Asia: A Study in Sino-Capitalism. Dlm. Brook, T. & Luong, H. V. (pnyt.), Culture and Economy: The Shaping of Capitalism in Eastern Asia, hlm. 155-181. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Heng, Pek Khoon. 1997b. The New Economic Policy and the Chinese Community in Peninsular Malaysia. Developing Economies 35(3): 262-292.
Hofheinz, R. Jr. & K. Calder. 1982. The Eastasia Edge. New York: basic Books.
Hsiao, H. H. Micheal. 1988. An East Asian development model: Empirikal explorations. Dlm. Berger, P. L. & Hsiao, H. H. M. (pnyt.), Insearch of an East Asian Development Model, hlm. 12-23. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
Jesudason, J. V. 1997. Chinese Business and Ethnic Equilibrium in Malaysia. Development and Change 28: 119-141.
Jochim, C. 1992. Confucius and capitalism: Views of Confucianism in works on Confucianism and economic development. Journal of Chinese Religions 20: 135-171.
Kahn, H. 1979. World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond. London: Groon Helm.
Kao, J. 1993. Tribes: How Race, Religion and Identity Determine Success in the New Global Economy. New York: Random House.
Kotkin, J. 1993. Tribes: How Race, Religion and Identity Determine Success In The New Global Economy. New York: Random House.
Kuo, E. C. Y. 1987. Confucianisme and the Chinese family in Singapore: Continuities and changes. Revised version of a paper prepared for the International Conference on The Psycho-Cultural Dynamics of the Confucian Family: Past and Present. Yongpyong, Kangwon Province, Korea, 15-19 September 1986.
Kuo, E. C. Y. 1991. Ethnicity, Polity and Economy: A Case Study of the Manderin Trade and the Chinese Connection. Dlm. Hamilton, G. (pnyt.), Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.
Kuo, E. C. Y. 1996. Confucianism as political discourse in Singapore: the case of an incomplete revitalization movement. Dlm. Tu, We-ming (pnyt.), Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity: Moral Education and Economic Culture in Japan and the Four Mini Dragons, hlm. 294-309. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Landa, J. T. 1983. The Political Economy of the Ethnically Homogenous Chinese Middleman Group in Southeast Asia: Ethnicity and Entrepreneurship in a Plural Society. Dlm. Lim, Linda Y. C. & Gosling, L. A. P. (pnyt.), The Chinese in Southeast Asia: Ethnicity and Economic Activity Volume 1, hlm. 86-116. Singapore: Maruzen Asia.
Lee, Raymond L. M. 1997. The limits and renewal of modernity: reflections on world development and Asian cultural values. International Sociology 12(3); 259-274.
Lim, Mah Hui. 1981. Ownership and Control of the One Hundred Largest Corporations in Malaysia and Singapura. Dlm. Lim, Linda Y. C. & Gosling, L. A. P. (pnyt.), The Chinese in Southeast Asia: Ethnicity and Economic Activity Volume 1, hlm. 245-274. Singapore: Maruzen Asia.
Lufrano, R. J. 1997. Honorable Merchants: Commerce and self-cultivation in late imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Lun Yu (The Analect of Confucius-teks dalam bahasa Cina). 1985.Taipei.
Mackie, J. 1998. Business success among Southeast Asian Chinese: the role of culture, values and social structures. Dlm. Hefner, R. W. (pnyt.), Market Cultures: Society and Morality in the New Asian Capitalism, hlm. 129.146. Boulder, Colorado: WestviewPress.
Menkhoff,T. & C. E. Labig. 1996. Trading networks of Chinese entrepreneurs in Singapore. SOJOURN ll(1): 128-151.
Mineo, Nakajima. 1994. Economic development in East Asia and Confusius ethics. Social Compass 41(1): 113-119.
Naisbitt, J. 1995. Megatrends Asia: The Eight Asian Megatrends that are Changing the World. London: Nicholas Brealey.
Nonini, D. M. 1983. The Chinese Truck Transport "Industry" of a Peninsular Malaysia Market Town. Dlm. Lim, Linda Y. C. &Gosling, L. A. P. (pnyt.), The Chinese in Southeast Asia: Ethnicity and Economic Activity Volume I, hlm. 171-206. Singapore: Maruzen Asia.
Purcell, V. 1967. The Chinese in Malaya. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press.
Redding, S. G. 1980. Cognition as an aspect of culture and its relation to management process: an exploratory view of the Chinese case. Journal of Management Studies 17(2): 127-148.
Redding, S. G. 1990. The Spirit of Chinese Capitalism. New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Redding, S. G. 1991. Weak organization and strong linkages: Managerial ideology and Chinese family business networks. Dlm. Hamilton, G. (pnyt.), Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, hlm. 30-47. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.
Redding, S. G. & H. H. M. Hsiao. 1994. An empirical study of Overseas Chinese managerial ideology. Dlm. Kao, H. S. R., Sinha, D. & Ng, Sek-Hong (pnyt.), Effective Organization and Socia1Values, hlm.72-84. London: Sage Publication.
Rugayah Mohamed. 1994. Sino-Bumiputera business cooperation. Dlm. Fujio Hara (pnyt.), The development of Bumiputera enrerprises and Sino-Malay economic cooperation in Malaysia, hlm. 73-90. Tokyo: Institute of Developing Economies.
Seagrave, S. 1997. Lords of the rim: The invisible empire of the Overseas Chinese. London: Gorgi Books.
Searle, P. 1999. The Riddle of Malaysian Capitalism: Rent-seekers or Real Capitalism? St. Leonards: Allen and Unwin.
Sieh, Lee Mei Ling. 1992. The Transformation of Malaysian Business Groups. Dlm. McVey, R. (pynt.), Southeast Asian Capitalists. New York: Southeast Asia Program.
Swedberg, R. 1991. Major traditions of economic sociology. Annual Review of Sociology 17: 251-76.
Taku, Suyama. 1962. Pang Society and the Economy of Chinese Immigrants in Southeast Asia. Dlm. Treggoning, K. G. (pnyt.), Papers on Malayan History. Singapore: Journal of Southeast Asia History.
Tan, Ee Leong. 1953.The Chinese banks incorporated in Singapore and the Federation of Malaya. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 26(1): 113-139.
Tong, Chee Kiong & Yong Pit Kee. 1998. Guanxi bases, xinyong and Chinese business networks. British Journal of Sosiology 49(1): 75-96.
Tong, Chee Keong. 1991. Centripetal Authority, Differentiated Networks: The social organization of Chinese firms in Singapore. Dlm. Hamilton, G. (pnyt.), Business Networks and Economic Development in East and Southeast Asia, hlm. 176-200. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.
Tu, We-ming (pnyt.). 1996. Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity: Moral Education and Economic Culture in Japan and the Four Mini Dragons. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Vogel, E. 1979. Japan as number one. Tokyo: Charles Tuttle.
Vogel, E. E 1991. The Four Little Dragons: The Spread of Industrialization in East Asia. London: Harvard University Press.
Wang, Gungwu. 1991. China and the Chinese Overseas. Singapore: Time Academic Press.
Wang, Gungwu. 1995. The significance of Confucianism in contemporary Chinese culture. Asian Culture 19 (June): 9-13.
Weber, M. 1951. The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism. New York: The Free Press.
Weidenbaum, M. & S. Hughes. 1996. The Bamboo Network: How Expatriate Chinese Entrepreneurs are Creating a New Economic Superpower in Asia. New York: Matin Kessler Books & The Free Press.
Weller, R. P. 1998. Divided market culture in China: Gender, enterprise, and religion. Dlm. Hefner, R. W. (pnyt.), Market Cultures Society and Morality in the New Asian Capitalism, hlm. 78-103. Boulder, Colorado: WestviewPress.
Wong, S. 1985. The Chinese family firm: A model. British Journal of Sociology 36: 58-72.
Wong, S. 1991. Chinese entrepreneurs and business Uust. Dlm. Hamilton, G. (pnyt.), Business networks and economic development in East and Southeast Asia. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies University of Hong Kong.
Yeung, Henry Wai-chung. 1997. The globalization of ethnic Chinese business firms from Southeast Asia: Strategies, processes and competitive advantage. Paper presented at the Conference on Chinese Business in Southeast Asia, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 23-25 June.
Yoshihara Kunio. 1988. Kemunculan Kapitalisme Tiruan di Asia Tenggara (The Rise of Ersatz Capitalism in South-East Asia). Terj. Ishak Shari (1995). Petaling Jaya: Business Information Press.
Yu, Yingshi. 1987. Zongguo jinshi zongjiao lunli yu shangren jingshen (Religious ethics and the merchant spirit in early modern China). (Teks dalam bahasa Cina). Taipei: Lianjing Publishers.
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
ISSN: 0126-5008
eISSN: 0126-8694